Category Archives: Ecosystem

The Link between Salmon and Forest Ecosystem Productivity

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In the past few years, Dr. Tom Reimchen of the University of Victoria and his students have established clear relationships between the health of Coastal forest ecosystems and the ocean through the food webs involving salmon.  Below are links from the publications of Dr. Tom Reimchen to  some of the research articles and papers they have published on this topic:

49.    Reimchen, T. E. 2000a.  Some ecological and evolutionary aspects of bear – salmon interactions in coastal British Columbia.  Can. J. Zool. 78: 448-457.  (.pdf version)

60.    Hocking, M. D. & T. E. Reimchen. 2002. Salmon-derived nitrogen in terrestrial invertebrates from coniferous forests of the Pacific Northwest. BioMedCentral Ecology 2:4-14. ( http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6785/2/4/qc ) (.pdf version)

63.    Reimchen, T. E.  D. Mathewson, M. D. Hocking, J. Moran and D. Harris. 2003. Isotopic evidence for enrichment of salmon-derived nutrients in vegetation, soil and  insects in riparian zones in coastal British Columbia. American Fisheries Society Symposium 34: 59-69. (.pdf version)

66.    Mathewson, D.,  M.H. Hocking, and T. E. Reimchen . 2003.  Nitrogen uptake in riparian plant communities across a sharp ecological boundary of salmon density. BioMedCentral Ecology 2003:4. (.pdf version)

70.    Wilkinson, C. E., M. H. Hocking, T. E. Reimchen.  2005.  Uptake of salmon-derived nitrogen by mosses and liverworts in Coastal British Columbia. Oikos 108: 85-98.  (.pdf  version)

76. Hocking, M.D and Reimchen T.E. 2006. Consumption and distribution of salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) nutrients and energy by terrestrial flies Can. J. of Fish. and Aquatic Sciences 63: 2076-2086. (.pdf version)

87. Christie, K. S.,  M.D. Hocking, and T.E. Reimchen. 2008. Tracing salmon-derived nutrients in riparian foodwebs: isotopic evidence in a ground-foraging passerine.  Can. J. Zool. 86: 1317-1323.  (.pdf version).

98.  Hocking, M.D., R. A. Ring and T. E. Reimchen.  2009. The ecology of terrestrial invertebrates on Pacific salmon carcasses. Ecol. Res. (.pdf version)

102. Darimont. C.T.,  Bryan, H.,  Carlson, S.M.,  Hocking, M.D., MacDuffee, M.,  Paquet, P.C.,  Price, M.H.H.,  Reimchen, T. E.,  Reynolds, J.D., & Wilmers, C.C.  2010.  Salmon for terrestrial protected areas. Conservation Letters 3: 379-389. (.pdf version)

TR12. Reimchen, T. E. 2001. Salmon nutrients, nitrogen isotopes and coastal forests. Ecoforestry 16:13-17. (.pdf version)

TR15. Reimchen, T. E.  2004. Marine and terrestrial ecosystem linkages: the major role of salmon and bears to riparian communities.     Botanical Electronic News. BEN#328.    http://www.ou.edu/cas/botany-micro/ben/ben328.html

Trees of the Coast of Metchosin

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Terrestrial and Marine Systems Interact with exchanges of materials and energy between the two. This page when developed further will illustrate that interaction.
Some ideas to be developed here:

1. Energy and materials transfer to the ocean of terrestrial vegetative material  by freshwater runoff . Carbon and Nutrient input from forests to the oceans.

2. The close ties between salmon and forest productivity

3. Overhanging trees in Coastal areas providing shelter and insect food for forage fish.

4. Control of coastal erosion by tree cover.

5. Coastline aesthetics of tree cover.

Link to posts on this website tagged with “Trees”

————————————————————————————–
See the Protected Tree Map of Metchosin
The Protected Trees of Metchosin was a topic of one of the Blue-Green Spaces Walk and Talk Series. The files on the trees have been prepared by Jim MacPherson and Moralea Milne.

Link to the Tree Cutting Bylaw proposal of MEASC, 2013

Link to the  Tree Management Bylaw :

Link to:Times Colonist:  Metchosin stops short of requiring permits to cut trees

 

Metchosin Shoreline Report : MEASC 2013

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The Metchosin Environmental Advisory Select Committee of  Metchosin District submitted this report to Council in June  2013.

See the complete report as a  PDF: Metchosin Shoreline Report 2013June 10-2

Executive Summary

The unique values attributed to the Coastal Areas of Metchosin have been recognized both historically and by outside researchers. They have also been outlined at length in the Official Community Plan and other documents produced for the District.

The objective of the Metchosin Shoreline Report is to provide Mayor and Council with a background document and decision-making tools for issues related to Metchosin’s shoreline environment: the jurisdictional boundaries are delineated; examples of ecologically sensitive areas are highlighted; and the biological and geographical values of eight zones of the forty-five km of shoreline are profiled.

The values of biodiversity, education, natural capital, aesthetics, philosophy, and ecotourism are all affected by our coastal areas. Therefore, the risks from human activity on the sustainability of these areas are emphasized.

With the increasing likelihood of changing climatic events impacting on our shoreline, and in order to mitigate these risks, a number of recommendations are proposed for the Municipality to implement:

  1. Create a development permit zone in the area between the end of provincial jurisdiction at the high water mark and the end of the high tide storm-driven wash on the landowner’s property.
  2. Prevent the human caused hardening of the shoreline by sea walls, roadways or bulkheading, and shoreline modifications.
  3. Design a “Coastal Covenant,” which landowners could sign, in order to guarantee the protection of the integrity of their section of shoreline.
  4. Establish and protect vegetation buffer zones along streams and along the total shoreline, including special attention to salt marshes and eelgrass beds.
  5. Protect eelgrass beds by eliminating damage from log booms, docks and other structures.
  6. Divert runoff of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides from streams and surrounding farmlands away from shoreline, salt marsh, and seagrass habitats.
  7. Develop emergency response plans for the District in the event of a land or ocean-based toxic spill, which could potentially threaten the shoreline.

See the complete report as a  PDF: Metchosin Shoreline Report 2013June 10-2

 

 

Macroalgae ( Kelp) beds around Southern Vancouver Island and their role in Carbon Sequestration .

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Sometimes viewed as a nuisance for boaters around the shores of Metchosin, kelp beds (Nereocystis luetkeana) are however a valuable species of our natural capital

Nereocystis leutkeana, Bull kelp

Nereocystis luetkeana, Bull kelp

Our kelp beds provide ecosystem services such as habitat for juvenile fish, and marine mammals. Research on macroalgae of the temperate coastal areas in the world  has also shown extremely high rates of photosynthetic capacity and therefore another ecosystem service, in these algal beds, carbon fixation,  In this post I will  annotate  some of the significant research that documents the value of this resource.

“Kelp forests occur in cold, nutrient-rich water and are among the most beautiful and biologically productive habitats in the marine environment. They are found throughout the world in shallow open coastal waters, and the larger forests are restricted to temperatures less than 20ºC, extending to both the Arctic and Antarctic Circles. A dependence upon light for photosynthesis restricts them to clear shallow water and they are rarely much deeper than 15-40m. The kelps have in common a capacity for some of the most remarkable growth rates in the plant kingdom. In southern California, the Macrocystis can grow 30 cm per day.”

Abstract: There has been a good deal of interest in the potential of marine vegetation as a sink for anthropogenic carbon emissions , (Blue Carbon). Marine primary producers contribute at least 50% of the world’s carbon fixation and may account for as much as 71 percent of all carbon storage. In this paper, we analyze the current rate of harvesting of both commercial and growing and wild growing macro algae, as well as their capacity for photosynthetically driven carbon dioxide assimilation and growth. We suggest that carbon dioxide acquisition by marine macroalgae can represent a considerable sink for anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions and the harvesting and appropriate use of macroalgal primary production could play a significant role in carbon sequestration and amelioration of greenhouse gas emissions.

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Sea Lettuce, ( Ulva lactuca)

Sea Lettuce, ( Ulva lactuca)

Off the  shores of Weir’s Beach  grows a large bed of Sea lettuce (Ulva lactuca) .  the following article attests to the efficiency of sea lettuce  in carbon dioxide fixation:

Carbon sequestration by a few marine algae: observation and projection

Kaladharan, P and Veena, S and Vivekanandan, E (2009) Carbon sequestration by a few marine algae: observation and projection. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India, 51 (1). pp. 107-110

Abstract: CO2 sequestration by the marine planktonic microalgae Nannochloropsis salina and Isochrysis galbana as well as macroforms Gracilaria corticata, Sargassum polycystum and Ulva lactuca was estimated under laboratory conditions. The green seaweed U. lactuca registered 100% utilization of CO2 towards carbon fixation from the ambient water up to 15 mg/l and beyond that it declined to 60%. The microalgae were able to utilize 27.7% of dissolved CO2 at 15 mg/l, but did not show any effect either for carbon fixation or for emission at lower and higher levels. Gross primary productivity of these algae were also not affected by increase in the CO2 levels. It is estimated that the seaweed biomass along the Indian coast is capable of utilizing 9052 tCO2/d against emission of 365 tCO2 /d indicating a net carbon credit of 8687 t/d.

Recommendation:
  • A detailed mapping of Nereocystis beds  and Ulva lactuca beds on the Coast of Metchosin  should be done to quantify the extent of these resources.

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Concerns for the Kelp Resources of Metchosin:

The potential for commercial exploitation of this species is of concern, since he value as habitat for marine animals may far outweigh commercial possibilities. This reference explains the uses of the plant and it does not even include the potential for harvest for biomass , gas extraction:
“Uses 

Both the stipe and the blades of Nereocystis luetkeana are used for fresh and dried foods, nutritional supplements, cosmetic products such as exfoliants, fertilizers, animal feed, dog snacks, and dog shampoo and moisturizer.  Producers have found that it is rich in calcium, magnesium, sodium, iodine, potassium, phosphorus, iron, bulk fiber, and vitamins A, B complex, C, D, E, and K, protein and free amino acids.  It is used as an herbal remedy, with claims that it detoxifies body tissues of heavy metal and radioactive agents, treats thyroid disorders, arthritis and digestive problems; purifies blood, aids in weight loss, eases lymphatic swelling; treats herpes infections, eases inflammation and neuritis, soothes mucuous membranes, and reduces side effects of chemotherapy and radiation.  Other benefits mentioned for Nereocystis luetkeana in the spa include that it is stimulating, firming, revitalizing, tonic and slimming.  Over 25 products have been identified from over 10 different sellers in Canada, the United States, and the Netherlands.

Harvesting 

Commercial harvesting is known to occur in British Columbia and California

Harvesting Techniques 

As Nereocystis luetkeana grows in the subtidal and shallow intertidal zones, it is typically harvested from a skiff or small boat with a knife, although in some areas it may be harvested on foot at low tide.

Ecosystem 

Nereocystis tends to grow in large kelp forests, and the blades create lush surface canopies. Kelp forests provide important sheltering habitat for many marine fishes and invertebrates, including urchins, sea stars, snails and crabs, and are an important food source for sea urchins.  These forests also provide habitat for sea otters since sea otters eat the invertebrates that live on the kelp forest floor and the kelp itself provides a canopy which the otter can anchor to while resting to keep from drifting away.  The anchoring holdfast can reach a diameter of more that a foot, and can harbor its own collection of organisms by offering them protection among the haptera.  Nereocystis luetkeana is the only kelp which will drop spore patches, so that the right concentration of spores lands near the parent’s holdfast.  They grow out continuously from a meristem located at their base and slough off at their older outer tips.  The detritus formed by the sloughing tips has been shown to be an important source of carbon for inshore intertidal communities.  This detritus feeds species such as Blue rockfish (Sebastes mystinus) and many of the filter feeders, such as Pacific Blue Mussels (Mytilus trossulus) in the intertidal zone.  Urchins feed on Nereocystis luetkeana, and conversely this kelp can opportunistically and rapidly colonize areas that have been cleared by urchins.”

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Research into the role of marine algae and its importance in contributing to energy flow when they end up on a beach is reported in the following research out of the Bamfield Marine Station:

by Malte Mews, Martin Zimmer, Dennis E. Jelinsk
ABSTRACT: The fate of subtidally drifting macrophytal detritus after its deposition ashore was studied based on short-term mass loss effects and species composition of beach-cast detritus. Different species of macroalgae and seagrass varied in both physical and microbial decay, as well as faunal decomposition rates. Their preferred status as food for detritivorous amphipods also varied. Thus, beach-cast detritus changed in species composition during detritus aging. Estimated turnover rates, based on daily input rates and mass loss rates, ranged from <1 d for Nereocystis luetkeana, Macrocystis integrifolia and Ulva spp. to roughly 30 d for Fucus spp. and Phyllospadix spp. Thus, the dynamics of nutrient fluxes within the marine–terrestrial ecotone depends not only on the spatial distribution and amount of beach-cast detritus, but also on its species composition.
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  • Recommendation: The municipality should investigate the possibility of influencing provincial legislation to place a moratorium on the harvest of any natural kelp resources on our shoreline.

 

 

Marine Algae of the Metchosin Coastline.

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Marine Algae along the Coast of Metchosin contributes to  Biodiversity and to the habitat of the shoreline. The productivity of some of the macroalgae beds is very high, contributing to carbon fixation and a food source for marine ecosystems. Some algae are grazed directly by fish and invertebrates, but many contribute their energy to the ecosystems when they break down in the water column or on the shoreline. The kelp beds of the coastal areas are valuable habitat for larval, and juvenile fish. Thus marine algae contribute to the Natural Capital of our marine systems in a very significant way.

Resources:

algaeredfenestrThe Algae of Taylor Beach

 

 

 

image005The Race Rocks Digital Herbarium

 

 

 

halosacc

Marine Plants at Race Rocks

 

 

 

saltwaterArchived Videos of Marine Plants at Race Rocks

 

Natural Capital of Metchosin’s Coastline

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orcamalefemodIn recent years, we have started to acknowledge that “Ecosystem services “ are something to which we must start paying attention as to fail to do so leads to a rapid decline in our quality of life:  Some of the ecosystem services that are part of Natural Capital are defined below, and a link to the Race Rocks website provides a model of how Ecosystem Services may be evaluated in a local ecosystem.

The following materials have been adapted from that resource:
Ecosystem services

‘Ecosystem goods’, such as food, and ‘services’, such as waste assimilation, represent the benefits humans obtain from a properly functioning ecosystem and are usually referred together as ‘ecosystem services’. Unsurprisingly a large number of ecosystem services have been identified, especially for the oceans which cover the majority of the planet and the coastal zone where the majority of humans live.

The items below might have a relevance for Metchosin’s coastal areas.

These include: gas regulation (e.g. maintaining a balanced chemical composition in the atmosphere), climate regulation (e.g. control of global temperature, precipitation, greenhouse gas regulation, cloud formation)
disturbance regulation (e.g. storm protection, flood control, drought recovery),
water regulation (e.g. regulation of global, regional and local scale hydrology through currents and tides),
water supply (e.g. storage of water returned to land as precipitation),
erosion and sediment transport/deposition (e.g. moving sediments from source areas and replenishing depositional areas),
nutrient cycling e.g. the storage, internal cycling, processing and acquisition of nutrients, nitrogen fixation, phosphorus cycles),
waste treatment (e.g. the breakdown of excess xenic and toxic compounds),
biological control (e.g. the trophic-dynamic regulation of populations),
refugia (e.g. feeding and nursery habitats for resident and transient populations of harvested species),
food production (e.g. the portion of gross primary production which is extracted as food for humans),
raw materials (e.g. the portion of gross primary production which is extracted as fuel or building material),
genetic resources(e.g. sources of unique biological materials for medicines),
recreation (e.g. opportunities for tourism, sport and other outdoor pastimes) and cultural (e.g. opportunities for aesthetic, artistic, educational, spiritual activities).

The value (the theoretical cost of artificially replacing the services were they not to be provided by nature) to humanity of these ecosystem services has been estimated at $8400 billion per year for the open oceans and 1.5 times this for coastal ecosystems. Consumptive use (production of food and raw materials) is a minor (<5%) component and therefore the true value of marine ecosystems is in non- consumptive use. However quantifying such use is notoriously hard.

Adapted from the reference:
The structure and function of ecological systems in relation to property right regimes. In: Hanna, S., Folke, C., Maler, K.G. (Eds.), Rights to Nature. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 13 34. Authority. Research Publication No. 35, Townsville, Australia, pp. 83.   ( DOCUMENT ) Author(s) / Editor(s) Costanza, R., Folke, C., 1997.

You can have a look at the model proposed for a project at Race Rocks in this link:  DEFINING THE ECOSYSTEM SERVICES of RACE ROCKS.
It is our hope that while you are helping us to assemble the values of these Ecosystem services for Metchosin’s  you may be motivated to look in your own back yard and start placing a more realistic value on your own Ecosystems’ Services. ” Even today’s technology and knowledge can reduce considerably the human impact on ecosystems. They are unlikely to be deployed fully, however, until ecosystem services cease to be perceived as free and limitless, and their full value is taken into account.”

OTHER REFERENCES ON THIS TOPIC:

Patterns of a Conservation Economy: True Cost Pricing
http://www.conservationeconomy.net/natural_capital.html

Ecosystem Services:
http://www.conservationeconomy.net/ecosystem_services.html

Ecosystem Services: Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems
http://www.ecology.org/biod/value/EcosystemServices.html

Millennium Ecosystem Assessments of the World Health organization
http://www.millenniumassessment.org//en/index.aspx

How ecosystem services relate to one another
http://www.ecosystemservicesproject.org/html/publications/docs/nair/chap7.pdf

Ethical Considerations in On-Ground Applications of the Ecosystem Services Concept, www.biosciencemag.org  1020 BioScience • December 2012 / Vol. 62 No. 12

http://ires.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2012/12/Luck-et-al-2012-BioSci-ethical-considerns-of-on-ground-ES-applicns.pdf

Ecosystem Services – Case studies from Australia
http://www.ecosystemservicesproject.org/index.htm

Securing Canada’s Natural Capital:
http://www.nrtee-trnee.ca/eng/publications/securing-canadas-natural-capital/securing-canadas-natural-capital-eng.pdf

Natural Capital:

http://www.conservationeconomy.net/content.cfm?PatternID=17

RESULTS OF NATIONAL SURVEY ON ECOLOGICAL GOODS AND SERVICES
http://www.maweb.org/documents/document.300.aspx.pdf

References specializing in Marine Ecosystem Services:

Aquatic ecosystems provide many services contributing to human well-being . Maintenance of the integrity and
the restoration of these ecosystems are vital for services such as water replenishment and purification, flood and drought control.

1. Other reference Ecosystem Services: The Role of Natural Capital
A piece that defines the ecosystem services of Race Rocks

2. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES: Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems
http://www.ecology.org/biod/value/EcosystemServices.html

3. The encyclopedia of Earth: Marine ecosystem services:
http://www.ecology.org/biod/value/EcosystemServices.html

4. Assessing the Non-Market Values of Ecosystem Services provided by Coastal and Marine Systems http://www.ecotrust.org/katoomba/presentations/Marine_Coastal_Presentations
/NonMarket_Values_Coastal_Marine_Ecosystems_Matthew_Wilson_Shuang_Liu.pdf

5. Economic Valuation of Ecosystem Services
http://judylumb.com/eco-services.html

  • “It is most important to raise consciousness of the general public and of public officials and managers of the value of ecosystem services. Here are some ways that individual friends might choose.
    1)    Educate ourselves about ecosystem services.
    2)    Monitor local news for issues that impact ecosystem services to point out areas of public concern when ecosystem services are destroyed or disregarded.
    3)    Speak truth to power — communicate with local officials and congressional representatives about the implications of their decisions on ecosystem services.
    4)    Hold agencies to the environmental and public input requirements of the laws.
    5)    Make certain that preservation of ecosystem services is among the options presented.
    6)    Write letters to the editor to educate the public about ecosystem services”

6: Millennium Ecosystem assessment panel: Ecosystems and Human Well: being wetlands and water.
http://www.maweb.org/documents/document.358.aspx.pdf

7.The Ecosystem Services Project http://www.ecosystemservicesproject.org/

8. Global Warming — Blue Carbon.. A Sierra Club resouce on the value of seagrasses and salt marshes as 50 times more efficient Carbon fixers than forests.

Ecologically Sensitive Areas of Coastal Metchosin

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ecoareas

This list does not necessarily include all ecologically sensitive areas. Arguments could be made for the complete coastline being ecologically sensitive.
1.Lagoon with shorebird habitat, Sensitive dune vegetation
on sand shore.2.Coastal Islands with harbour seal haulouts

3.Harbourseal haulout

4.Coastal lagoon, migratory and resident seabird habitat.

5.Eel grass beds offshore. Sensitive dune vegetation on sand shore.

6. High current invertebrate community

7. Estuary, mudflat habitat for overwintering shorebirds.

8. Cormorant winter roosting colony.

9. Kelp bed for fish spawning and seabird habitat. Great blue herons often feed from the kelp

10. High current channel with harbour seal haulouts and winter feeding grounds for seabirds, some migratory. Western Grebes and Buffleheads frequent the area in winter.

11. High current area, with significant invertebrate colonies,
kelp beds, a rockfish protection area, marine mammal haulout and seabird nesting and overwintering habitat.

12. Island ecosystems, swept with strong currents bearing significant invertebrate colonies.

13. Island ecosystems with significant invertebrate and kelp beds.

 

3.3 Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital

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BACKGROUND: A highlight of the sustainability theme is the potential to transmit to an audience a new way to look on and value the physical and living parts of a marine ecosystem which supplies a benefit directly or indirectly to humans. This is one area which provides potential for take away materials and ideas as well as action items.

Services Comments and Examples

  • Provisioning
    Food : production of fish,crustaceans, shellfish, edible marine algae, seabirds and seabird eggs,
    Salt water: a storage and retention of water for industrial use
    Oxygen production
    Biomass : Macroalgae for energy conversion .
    Biochemical: extraction of medicines and other materials from biota
    Industrial products such as marine algal products.
    Aggregate mining.
  • Regulating 
    Climate regulation sink for greenhouse gases; influence local and regional temperature,
    precipitation, and other climatic processes
    Habitat for local and migratory birds.
    Water regulation (hydrological flows)provides precipitation for groundwater recharge/
    Water purification and waste treatment retention, recovery, and removal of excess nutrients and other pollutants
    Retention of soils and sediments
    Natural hazard regulation flood control, storm protection.
  • Cultural
    Vibrant Coastal Communities
    Spiritual and inspirational source of inspiration; First Nations Cultures of the Pacific were nourished by the sea.
    Recreational opportunities for tourism and recreational activities
    Aesthetic many people find beauty or aesthetic value in aspects of marine ecosystems
    Educational and research opportunities for formal and informal education and training
  • Supporting 
    Sediment transfer, beach building.
    Nutrient cycling storage, recycling, processing, and acquisition of nutrients
    Transport of goods and services
    Waste treatment and detoxification,.
    Ocean Energy from Currents and Waves.

References:

1. From Marine Ecosystem Services :
From http://www.compassonline.org/” : Humans derive benefits (or ecosystem services) from ecological systems. These services are produced by plants, animals, microbes and people interacting with one another and the physical environment. Scientists recognize four categories of ecosystem services: provisioning services such as food, fuelwood, fiber, and water; regulating services such as the regulation of climate, floods, coastal erosion, drought and disease; cultural services including recreational, spiritual, religious and other nonmaterial benefits; and supporting services such as nutrient cycling and photosynthesis. Some key benefits provided by the ecosystem services of functioning marine systems include healthy seafood, clean beaches, stable fisheries, abundant wildlife, and vibrant coastal communities.

Value of biodiversity and ecosystem services

The supply of ecosystem services depends on many attributes of biodiversity. The variety, quantity, quality, dynamics and distribution of biodiversity that is required to enable ecosystems to function, and the supplying benefits to people, vary between services. The roles of biodiversity in the supply of ecosystem services can be categorized as provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting, and biodiversity may play multiple roles in the supply of these types of services.

  • For example, in agriculture, biodiversity is the basis for a provisioning service (food, fuel or fibre is the end product),
  • a supporting service (such as micro-organisms cycling nutrients and soil formation),
  • a regulatory service (such as through pollination), and potentially,
  • a cultural service in terms of spiritual or aesthetic benefits, or cultural identity.

The contributions of biodiversity-dependent ecosystem services to national economies are substantial. The science of valuation of ecosystem services is new, and still developing basic conceptual and methodological rigour and agreement, but it has already been very instructive, since the value of such services is generally ignored or underestimated at decision and policy making levels. Identifying economic values of ecosystem services, together with the notions of intrinsic value and other factors, will assist significantly in future decisions relating to trade-offs in ecosystem management.

  • Value of: Annual world fish catch – US$58 billion (provisioning service).
  • Anti-cancer agents from marine organisms – up to US$1 billion/year (provisioning service).
  • Global herbal medicine market – roughly US$43 billion in 2001 (provisioning service).
  • Honeybees as pollinators for agriculture crops – US$2–8 billion/year (regulating service).
  • Coral reefs for fisheries and tourism – US$30 billion/year (see Box 5.5) (cultural service).
  • Cost of: Mangrove degradation in Pakistan – US$20 million in fishing losses, US$500 000 in timber losses, US$1.5 million in feed and pasture losses (regulating provisioning services). Newfoundland cod fishery collapse – US$2 billion and tens of thousands of jobs (provisioning service).

Of those ecosystem services that have been assessed, about 60 per cent are degraded or used unsustainably, including fisheries, waste treatment and detoxification, water purification, natural hazard protection, regulation of air quality, regulation of regional and local climate, and erosion control Most have been directly affected by an increase in demand for specific provisioning services, such as fisheries, wildmeat, water, timber, fibre and fuel. “

Aquatic ecosystems provide many services contributing to human well-being .Maintenance of the integrity and the restoration of these ecosystems are vital for services such as water replenishment and purification, flood and drought control.

1. Ecosystem Services : Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems
http://www.ecosystemservices.org.uk/

2. Assessing the Non-Market Values of Ecosystem Services provided by Coastal and Marine Systems; http://www.eartheconomics.org/FileLibrary/file/Reports/Assessing_NonMarket_Values.pdf

3. Economic Valuation of Ecosystem Services
http://www.ecosystemvaluation.org/1-02.htm

  • “It is most important to raise consciousness of the general public and of public officials and managers of the value of ecosystem services. Here are some ways that individual friends might choose.
    1)    Educate ourselves about ecosystem services.
    2)    Monitor local news for issues that impact ecosystem services to point out areas of public concern when ecosystem services are destroyed or disregarded.
    3)    Speak truth to power — communicate with local officials and congressional representatives about the implications of their decisions on ecosystem services.
    4)      Hold agencies to the environmental and public input requirements of the laws.
    5)       Make certain that preservation of ecosystem services is among the options presented.
    6)    Write letters to the editor to educate the public about ecosystem services”

4: Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing
http://www.who.int/globalchange/ecosystems/ecosys.pdf

5. Amory Lovins lecturing on Natural Capital in a lecture at Berkley8. 

6.   Ecosystem Services: The Role of Natural Capital

A assignment that defines the ecosystem services of Race Rocks
This page with curricular ideas is based on the original found at:
http://www.racerocks.ca/ecology/ecosystemservices/
Although it is targeted as an exercise for Race Rocks, It could be used similarly in any other ecosystem.

See below for a preview:

In recent years, we have started to acknowledge that “Ecosystem services ” are something to which we must start paying attention as to fail to do so leads to a rapid decline in our quality of life: This file explores that idea further and invites you to contribute to a new project :
DEFINING THE ECOSYSTEM SERVICES of RACE ROCKS.
It is our hope that while you are helping us to assemble the values of these Ecosystem services for Race Rocks, you may be motivated to look in your own back yard and start placing a more realistic value on your own Ecosystems’ Services. ” Even today’s technology and knowledge can reduce considerably the human impact on ecosystems. They are unlikely to be deployed fully, however, until ecosystem services cease to be perceived as free and limitless, and their full value is taken into account.”

OBJECTIVES: After doing this assignment,students will beableto:

1. Define what is meant by the terms ecosystem services.

2. Define what is meant by the term Natural Capital.

3. Enumerate the Ecosystem services of Race Rocks.

PROCEDURES:

1. Using the references below, investigate what is meant by Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services. Make a table where you can list the ecosystem services which you think are provided by an area like Race Rocks. In the table make a dollar estimation of the value of that service per year.

2. Using the area where you live, make a list of the ecosysterm services provided by your local ecosystems, and rate which you think are the most important.

Here are some ideas to get you started:

  • You will observe commercial whale/marine mammal/bird/-watching boats in the area.. how many passengers do they carry and what is the value generated per trip.
  • You may see tankers and others vessels going by which you can also record . Race Rocks has a lighthouse and foghorn.. What is the value to ships of this set of islands for navigation?
  • Research is done at Race Rocks by students of schools, colleges and universities? What is the value of this location for research and education?
  • An Integrated Energy System was developed at Race Rocks. What is the value of this to BC Parks, to the BC government, to Pearson College?
  • A number of viewers around the world use Race Rocks as a location for bird and animal viewing. See the examples from England which are linked to the Daily Log
  • The role of marine protected areas in conservation is a world wide goal. How does the Management Plan for Race Rocks reflect ecosystem services provided by the area. http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/bcparks/planning/mgmtplns/race_rocks/racerock.html
BACKGROUND REFERENCE: From:
http://www.oceansatlas.org/servlet/CDSServlet?status=ND0xOTAwMS4xO
TAwNiY2PWVuJjMzPWRvY3VtZW50cyYzNz1pbmZvUNEP – WCMC  Ecosystem services‘Ecosystem goods’, such as food, and ‘services’, such as waste assimilation, represent the benefits humans obtain from a properly functioning ecosystem and are usually referred together as ‘ecosystem services’. Unsurprisingly a large number of ecosystem services have been identified, especially for the oceans which cover the majority of the planet and the coastal zone where the majority of humans live.The red high-lighted topics below might have a relevance for RaceRocks:These include: gas regulation (e.g. maintaining a balanced chemical composition in the atmosphere),
climate regulation  (e.g. control of global temperature, precipitation, greenhouse gas regulation, cloud formation)
disturbance regulation (e.g. storm protection, flood control, drought recovery),
water regulation (e.g. regulation of global, regional and local scale hydrology through currents and tides),
water supply (e.g. storage of water returned to land as precipitation),
erosion and sediment transport/deposition (e.g. moving sediments from source areas and replenishing depositional areas),
nutrient cycling e.g. the storage, internal cycling, processing and acquisition of nutrients, nitrogen fixation, phosphorus cycles),
waste treatment (e.g. the breakdown of excess xenic and toxic compounds),
biological control (e.g. the trophic-dynamic regulation of populations),
refugia  (e.g. feeding and nursery habitats for resident and transient populations of harvested species),
food production (e.g. the portion of gross primary production which is extracted as food for humans),
raw materials (e.g. the portion of gross primary production which is extracted as fuel or building material),
genetic resources (e.g. sources of unique biological materials for medicines),
recreation (e.g. opportunities for tourism, sport and other outdoor pastimes) and cultural (e.g. opportunities for aesthetic, artistic, educational, spiritual activities).The value (the theoretical cost of artificially replacing the services were they not to be provided by nature) to humanity of these ecosystem services has been estimated at $8400 billion per year for the open oceans and 1.5 times this for coastal ecosystems. Consumptive use (production of food and raw materials) is a minor (<5%) component and therefore the true value of marine ecosystems is in non- consumptive use. However quantifying such use is notoriously hard.Adapted from the reference:
The structure and function of ecological systems in relation to property right regimes. In: Hanna, S., Folke, C., Maler, K.G. (Eds.), Rights to Nature. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 13 34. Authority. Research Publication No. 35, Townsville, Australia, pp. 83.   ( DOCUMENT ) Author(s) / Editor(s) Costanza, R., Folke, C., 1997.OTHER REFERENCES ON THIS TOPIC:
Patterns of a Conservation Economy: True Cost Pricing
http://www.conservationeconomy.net/natural_capital.htmlEcosystem Services:
http://www.conservationeconomy.net/ecosystem_services.htmlEcosystem Services: Benefits Supplied to Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems
http://www.ecology.org/biod/value/EcosystemServices.htmlMillennium Ecosystem Assessments of the world Health organization
http://www.millenniumassessment.org//en/index.aspxSecuring Canada’s Natural Capital:
http://nrt-trn.ca/biodiversity/securing-canadas-national-capital

4.0 The Physical Story

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6.1 Thresholds in Ecological Systems:

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The following references are intended to highlight the concept of thresholds, and the implications this may hold for Marine Systems: They delineate problems of the uncertainty of thresholds and the implications when there is interference in ecosystem integrity by Global Climate change and poorly managed fisheries and habitat conservation in marine areas.

1. This reference on “Thresholds in Ecological and Social–Ecological Systems: a Developing Database explains some research into this problem:

http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art3/

“Increasing interest in regime shifts in ecological and linked social–ecological systems (SESs) has placed a strong focus on the thresholds of change. However, research into this topic has been hampered by a lack of empirical data. This paper describes a developing database established to address this need. The database is freely available and comprises a set of summarized published examples and a searchable bibliographic database of publications on the topic. Thresholds in the database are characterized in terms of a standardized set of 24 descriptors, including the variables along which they occur, the variables that change, and the factors that have driven the change. Readers are encouraged to contribute new examples. Examples range from conceptual models to empirical evidence. The former predominate in the literature and, although they make valuable contributions and will continue to be included, the intention is build up the number of examples based on data. Examples are presented in terms of whether the threshold occurs in the ecological system, the social system, or both, and the direction of interactions between systems. The paper concludes with some initial observations on thresholds based on the examples included so far, and poses some questions for future research. Research on a typology of thresholds is a priority topic in the emerging area of “sustainability science” and it requires a rich database of empirical data.”

2. Confronting he coral reef crisis:http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v429/n6994/full/nature02691.html

The worldwide decline of coral reefs calls for an urgent reassessment of current management practices. Confronting large-scale crises requires a major scaling-up of management efforts based on an improved understanding of the ecological processes that underlie reef resilience. Managing for improved resilience, incorporating the role of human activity in shaping ecosystems, provides a basis for coping with uncertainty, future changes and ecological surprises. Here we review the ecological roles of critical functional groups (for both corals and reef fishes) that are fundamental to understanding resilience and avoiding phase shifts from coral dominance to less desirable, degraded ecosystems. We identify striking biogeographic differences in the species richness and composition of functional groups, which highlight the vulnerability of Caribbean reef ecosystems. These findings have profound implications for restoration of degraded reefs, management of fisheries, and the focus on marine protected areas and biodiversity hotspots as priorities for conservation.

3.Ecological Thresholds in Aquatic Ecosystems: The Role of Climate Change, Anthropogenic Disturbance, and Invasive Species Progress Review Workshop

http://archive.epa.gov/ncer/publications/web/html/06_07_07_ecological.html

4. A Balancing Act
A leading UMaine marine scientist says better management is needed to save the world’s oceans that are drastically out of sync http://umainetoday.umaine.edu/issues/v6i4/act.html

Pointing to a growing list of health threats to the world’s oceans, Steneck describes a common pattern of slow, incremental overload and sudden collapse, suggesting that the Blue Planet’s ability to absorb the insults of human misuse have clear limits. The notion of ecological thresholds is at the core of Steneck’s assessment of the seas. As pressure on the marine environment continues to grow, these thresholds are being met — and surpassed.
A classic example of the threshold phenomenon can be found in the sad tale of the green sea urchin. Prolific and plentiful across the Gulf of Maine, urchins spent decades quietly munching at the Atlantic’s undersea salad bar, unaware of the socioeconomic tsunami on the horizon.
As urchin populations in other parts of the world were rapidly depleted by overfishing through the 1970s and ’80s, a seemingly insatiable Asian market turned its hungry eyes toward Maine, creating a boom-and-bust fishery that crashed a multimillion urchin population in less than two decades.

6.2 Global Climate change means Ocean change

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