Category Archives: Human Impact on Shorelines

3.1.1 Key Species

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Although all parts of an ecosystem are important for its long term sustainability, several species can be selected out which are essential to the operation of the whole system.

  • herring
    need for controls on over-harvesting

Ways these can be impacted:

  • overharvesting,
  • competition from introduced species
  • habitat loss.
  • toxic materials

How to mitigate this..

  • increase in research, baseline standards
  • moratorium on marine system development,
  • need to restore lost habitat
  • need for large areas to be set aside as parks or reserves for habitat now while it is available, later it may diminish.
  • complete detoxification of all run-off waters.
  • “a no negative impact” is the only option for marine developments.
  • recognition of interconnectivity in management of resources.

3.2 Integration and interconnections of Marine Ecosystems

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3.1.0 Ecosystem Integrity

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The values of maintaining ecosystems that function in an unaltered and interconnected way are paramount. The importance of controlling introduced species and the controls that must be placed on fishing have to be emphasized. Habitat loss is a major problem. Without secure habitats, the ecosystem services are degraded. Ecosystems have structure and function . If one sees the many facets that make up a well functioning ecosytem with negative feedback loops keeping it in a steady state, then they may have a better idea about how impacts on the ecosystem can have far-reaching effects.

Reference FROM:” WATER” http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/report/04_Water.pdf

Ecosystem integrity

Since 1987, many coastal and marine ecosystems and most freshwater ecosystems have continued to be heavily degraded, with many completely lost, some irreversibly (Finlayson and D’Cruz 2005, Argady and Alder 2005) (see Box 4.3). It has been projected that many coral reefs will disappear by 2040 because of rising seawater temperatures (Argady and Alder 2005). Freshwater and marine species are declining more rapidly than those of other ecosystems (see Figure 5.2d). Wetlands, as defined by the Ramsar Convention, cover 9–13 million km2 globally, but more than 50 per cent of inland waters (excluding lakes and rivers) have been lost in parts of North America, Europe, and Australia (Finlayson and D’Cruz 2005). Although data limitations preclude an accurate assessment of global wetland losses, there are many well- documented examples of dramatic degradation or loss of individual wetlands. The surface area of the Mesopotamian marshes, for example, decreased from 15 000–20 000 km2 in the 1950s to less than 400 km2 around the year 2000 because of excessive water withdrawals, damming and industrial development (UNEP 2001) but is now recovering (see Figure 4.12). In Bangladesh, more than 50 per cent of mangroves and coastal mudflats outside the protected Sunderbans have been converted or degraded.

Reclamation of inland and coastal water systems has caused the loss of many coastal and floodplain ecosystems and their services. Wetland losses have changed flow regimes, increased flooding in some places, and reduced wildlife habitat. For centuries, coastal reclamation practice has been to reclaim as much land from the sea as possible. However, a major shift in management practice has seen the introduction of managed retreat for the marshy coastlines of Western Europe and the United States. Although limited in area compared to marine and terrestrial ecosystems, many freshwater wetlands are relatively species-rich, supporting a disproportionately large number of species of certain faunal groups. However, populations of freshwater vertebrate species suffered an average decline of almost 50 per cent between 1987 and 2003, remarkably more dramatic than for terrestrial or marine species over the same time scale (Loh and Wackernagel 2004). Although freshwater invertebrates are less well assessed, the few available data suggest an even more dramatic decline, with possibly more than 50per cent being threatened (Finlayson and D’Cruz 2005). The continuing loss and degradation of freshwater and coastal habitats is likely to affect aquatic biodiversity more strongly, as these habitats, compared to many terrestrial ecosystems, are disproportionately species-rich and productive, and also disproportionately imperiled.

The introduction of invasive alien species, via ship ballast water, aquaculture or other sources, has disrupted biological communities in many coastal and marine aquatic ecosystems. Many inland ecosystems have also suffered from invasive plants and animals. Some lakes, reservoirs and waterways are covered by invasive weeds, while invasive fish and invertebrates have severely affected many inland fisheries. Declines in global marine and freshwater fisheries are dramatic examples of large-scale ecosystem degradation related to persistent overfishing,

http://www.maweb.org/documents/document.358.aspx.pdf

Mitigation of climate change. Sea level rise and increases in
storm surges associated with climate change will result in the
erosion of shores and habitat, increased salinity of estuaries and
freshwater aquifers, altered tidal ranges in rivers and bays,
changes in sediment and nutrient transport, and increased coastal
flooding and, in turn, could increase the vulnerability of some
coastal populations. Wetlands, such as mangroves and flood-
plains, can play a critical role in the physical buffering of climate
change impacts.

3.1.1 Key Species

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2.0 Ecological Sustainability as the Primary Theme

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Environmental Sustainability is now on the forefront of political agendas around the world, and is at the centre of concern for many of the world’s population. Due to obvious impacts that the environment is reflecting back on humans, it is not a topic which will go out of fashion in the near future. In this resource, the need to provide a stimulating experience to raise awareness in students about the value of our marine resources and the reinforcement of the role for education for sustainable development is emphasized . Where possible, global examples are brought in to emphasize the interdependence of all the world oceans.

  • 2.1 The wide diversity of ocean ecosystems: Within our immediate ocean we have a wide variety of ecosystem types.
  • 2.1.1 Coastal Ecosystems: There is a wide contrast in the character of our Coastline in British Columbia.
  • 2.1.0.1 Kelp Forest : Many issues are brought to light when considering these ecosystems: The effects of contaminants, the effects of introduced species, the ecosystem services provided in the form of habitat for other species.
  • 2.1.0.2 Rocky Shore, (sub and intertidal) Tidepools and rocky shore can show biodiversity as well as food web relationships. In addition, the effect of pollution, chemical and oil become crucial in these habitats.
  • 2.1.0.3 Beaches: sand and pebble : Geological processes create them and human actions can destroy. Their role as habitat for organisms, the importance of sedimentation and habitat and the energy dynamics of a strand line with natural and human debris.
  • 2.1.2 Benthic areas.
  • 2.1.3 Other ecosystems of the global seas, (ex. Arctic ice, Mangroves, coral reefs).
  • 2.1.4 Pelagic – Open ocean ecosystems. Plankton and its the interaction with ocean currents, can be indicators of food webs gone wrong.
  • 2.1.5 Abyssal Ecosystems :In the inland and outer coastal areas, B.C., has a number of significant regions.

We have individuals who are “doing sustainability” in their professional or personal lives in BC. Examples are “Dr. Pauly” .. see Fishing Down Food webs or Dr.Chan ..see Ecosystem Services: , Dr. Andrew Weaver actively involved in researching Climate Change at the University of Victoria, and First Nations members who are educating about First Nations Marine History and Culture.

See also the page on Individuals as role models: for marine environmental sustainability.

SUSTAINABILITY IN EDUCATION:

Linkage of specific educational objectives with experiences in which students from K to 12 can participate are outlined here.

Over the past 10 years or more the possibility of achieving the goals of ecological sustainability for the earth are tied closely to education , see the Background Rationale for the role of Education:

The BC Curriculum section contains links from Objectives to resources that they could find in the Marine Centre.

One document which provides the clearest goals related to sustainability is the
Earth Charter, http://www.earthcharterinaction.org/2000/10/the_earth_charter.html The following points are extracted to highlight the many ways that it is appropriate for the activities associated with the NMC.

  1. Respect Earth and life in all its diversity.
    a. Recognize that all beings are interdependent and every form of life has value regardless of its worth to human beings
  2. Care for the community of life with understanding, compassion, and love.
    a. Accept that with the right to own, manage, and use natural resources comes the duty to prevent environmental harm and to protect the rights of people
  3. Build democratic societies that are just, participatory, sustainable, and peaceful.
    b. Promote social and economic justice, enabling all to achieve a secure and meaningful livelihood that is ecologically responsible.
  4. Secure Earth’s bounty and beauty for present and future generations.
    a. Recognize that the freedom of action of each generation is qualified by the needs of future generations.
    b. Transmit to future generations values, traditions, and institutions that support the long-term flourishing of Earth’s human and ecological communities.

 In order to fulfill these four broad commitments, it is necessary to focus on the concept of

ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY

5. Protect and restore the integrity of Earth’s ecological systems, with special concern for biological diversity and the natural processes that sustain life.

  • a. Adopt at all levels sustainable development plans and regulations that make environmental conservation and rehabilitation integral to all development initiatives
  • b. Establish and safeguard viable nature and biosphere reserves, including wild lands and marine areas, to protect Earth’s life support systems, maintain biodiversity, and preserve our natural heritage
  • c. Promote the recovery of endangered species and ecosystems
  • d. Control and eradicate non-native or genetically modified organisms harmful to native species and the environment, and prevent introduction of such harmful organisms
  • e. Manage the use of renewable resources such as water, soil, forest products, and marine life in ways that do not exceed rates of regeneration and that protect the health of ecosystems
  • f. Manage the extraction and use of non-renewable resources such as minerals and fossil fuels in ways that minimize depletion and cause no serious environmental damage

6. Prevent harm as the best method of environmental protection and, when knowledge is limited, apply a precautionary approach

  • a. Take action to avoid the possibility of serious or irreversible environmental harm even when scientific knowledge is incomplete or inconclusive
  • b. Place the burden of proof on those who argue that a proposed activity will not cause significant harm, and make the responsible parties liable for environmental harm
  • c. Ensure that decision making addresses the cumulative, long-term, indirect, long distance, and global consequences of human activities
  • d. Prevent pollution of any part of the environment and allow no build-up of radioactive, toxic, or other hazardous substances
  • e. Avoid military activities damaging to the environment

7. Adopt patterns of production, consumption, and reproduction that safeguard Earth’s regenerative capacities, human rights, and community well-being.

  • a. Reduce, reuse, and recycle the materials used in production and consumption systems, and ensure that residual waste can be assimilated by ecological systems
  • b. Act with restraint and efficiency when using energy, and rely increasingly on renewable energy sources such as solar and wind
  • c. Promote the development, adoption, and equitable transfer of environmentally sound technologies
  • d. Internalize the full environmental and social costs of goods and services in the selling price, and enable consumers to identify products that meet the highest social and environmental standards
  • e. Ensure universal access to health care that fosters reproductive health and responsible reproduction
  • f. Adopt lifestyles that emphasize the quality of life and material sufficiency in a finite world

8. Advance the study of ecological sustainability and promote the open exchange and wide application of the knowledge acquired.

3.0  Ecosystem Integrity

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1.0 Strategies for a Sustainable Marine Future : Introduction

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1.0 Introduction:

The key message of this curriculum resource is on global marine issues, and the integral role of all humans in maintaining environmentally sustainable marine ecosystems. Examples from the British Columbia marine environment are used to illustrate the principles which can also apply on a global scale. The over-arching concept of this resource is what marine environmental sustainability means locally and how people can be encouraged to commit to contribute to the process. We believe that people of all ages can use the tools to actively participate in making our marine environment sustainable.

logoWe thank the Shaw Ocean Discovery Centre, in Sidney on Vancouver Island in British Columbia for supporting the development of the document that provides the basis for this curriculum resource. I encourage you to visit this Centre which opened in the spring of 2009.

Garry Fletcher
Marine Education Consulting, Metchosin, BC

Index:

Proceed to 2.0 Marine Environmental Sustainability

3.0 Biodiversity and the need to Conserve

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As a sub-theme, Biodiversity can accomplish many goals and provides a wealth of opportunities for curricular applications.

The Curriculum pages provide many objectives that relate to biodiversity.

cbd1.The best resource for this topic can be found on the CBD website:

http://www.cbd.int/default.shtml

2. Also, this pdf from the UNEP website: http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/report/05_Biodiversity.pdf

Biodiversity

  • People rely on biodiversity in their daily lives, often without realizing it.
  • Current losses of biodiversity are restricting future development options.
  • Biodiversity plays a critical role in providing livelihood security for people.
  • From the use of genetic resources to harnessing other ecosystem services, agriculture throughout the world is dependent on biodiversity.
  • Many of the factors leading to the accelerating loss of biodiversity are linked to the increasing use of energy by society.
  • Human health is affected by changes in biodiversity and ecosystem services.
  • Human societies everywhere have depended on biodiversity for cultural identity, spirituality, inspiration, aesthetic enjoyment and recreation.
  • Biodiversity loss continues because current policies and economic systems do not incorporate the values of biodiversity effectively in either the political or the market systems, and many current policies are not fully implemented.
 Although many losses of biodiversity, including the degradation of ecosystems, are slow or gradual, they can lead to sudden and dramatic declines in the capacity of biodiversity to contribute to human well- being. Modern societies can continue to develop without further loss of biodiversity only if market and policy failures are rectified.  These failures include perverse production subsidies, undervaluation of biological resources, failure to internalize environmental costs into prices and failure to appreciate global values at the local level. Reducing the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010 or beyond will require multiple and mutually supportive policies of conservation, sustainable use and the effective recognition of value for the benefits derived from the wide variety of life on Earth. Some such policies are already in place at local, national and international scales, but their full implementation remains elusive."

3. “From http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/report/06_Regional_Perspectives.pdf

“Population and economic growth are major factors fuelling increased demand on resources, and contributing to global environmental change in terms of the atmosphere, land, water and biodiversity….”

“A number of factors have led to the deterioration of marine and coastal areas, including fisheries, mangroves and coral reefs. They include rapid development of urban and tourism infrastructure, and of refineries, petrochemical complexes, power and desalination plants, as well as oil spills from ship ballast. Vast areas of terrestrial and marine ecosystems have been severely affected by wars, which led to the discharge of millions of barrels of crude oil into coastal waters. They have also been harmed by the infiltration of oil and seawater into aquifers, and by hazardous waste disposal. Environmental impact assessment requirements were introduced recently. Other responses include programmes to conserve biodiversity, manage coastal zones and develop marine protected areas. is also increasing in the environment.”

Box5.4 Deep Sea Biodiversity recently extended to the deep sea with the designation in 2003 of the Juan de Fuca Ridge system and associated Endeavour Hydrothermal Vents (2,250 metres deep and 250 kilometres south of Vancouver Island, Canada) as a Marine Protected Area.

4. See Value of biodiversity and ecosystem services

5. In October of 2007, The minister of Environment for Brazil spoke in a conference in Norway that focused on the importance of biodiversity in combating poverty and in achieving sustainable development. ( http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/md/Selected-topics/Naturmangfold/Vedlegg/Ecosystems-and-People–biodiversity-for-.html?id=487378 )

6. Species Diversity: http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.287.aspx.pdf

The lowered biomass and fragmented habitats resulting from overexploitation of marine resources is likely to lead to numerous extinctions, especially among large, long-lived, late-maturing spe- cies (Sadovy and Cheung 2003; Sadovy et al. 2003a; Denney et al. 2002).

Fishing is thus one of the major direct anthropogenic forces that has an impact on the structure, function, and biodiversity of the oceans today. Climate change will also have impacts on biodiversity through changes in marine species distributions and abundances. In the coastal biome, other factors, including water quality, pollution, river and estuarine inputs, have large impacts on coastal and marine systems. (See Chapter 19.) Historical over- fishing and other disturbances have caused dramatic decreases in the abundance of large predatory species, resulting in structural and functional changes in coastal and marine ecosystems and the collapse of many marine ecosystems (Jackson et al. 2001). One well-documented example is that of the historic fishing grounds ranging from New England to Newfoundland and Labrador, which once supported immense cod fisheries but which have now been almost completely replaced by fisheries targeting invertebrates, the former prey of these fish (providing a classic example of fishing down marine food webs). The system that once sup- ported cod has almost completely disappeared, fueling fears that this species will not rebuild its local populations, even though fishing pressure has been much reduced (Hutchings and Ferguson 2000; Hutchings 2004; Lilly et al. 2000). However, some col- lapsed stocks have been able to recover once fishing pressure is removed: the North Sea herring fishery collapsed due to over- harvest in the late 1970s but recovered after a four-year closure (Bjørndal 1988). On a much smaller scale, but nevertheless wide- spread throughout the tropics, coral reef areas have been degraded by a combination of overfishing, pollution, and climate variability.

Archives : The  Metchosin Biodiversity Strategy

3.1.0 Ecosystem Integrity

Index

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 16. The Case for a Coastal Zone Management Act.

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This is a chapter extracted from ” Maintaining Natural BC for Our Children: Selected Law reform Proposals , Environmental Law Centre, University of Victoria,  November 2012

Editing, Design and Photographs: Holly Pattison, UVic Environmental Law Centre
page 78:
caseforcoastalact
The Case for a Coastal Zone Management Act
By Jamie Alley and Calvin Sandborn
The BC coast is perhaps the province’s most important single asset. Home to most of our population, it is also home to some of the most important and productive ecosystems on earth.
Today the coast faces unprecedented challenges, including:
•Increased development and loss of public access to the coastline;
•Proposals for new oil ports and marine transportation corridors;
•Threatened fish stocks; and
•The need for emergency programs to deal with earthquakes, tsunamis, and
the extreme weather, storm surges and sea level rise caused by climate
change.
Response to these challenges often falls short because the coast is governed

by a patchwork of federal, provincial and municipal agencies that largey fail to co-ordinate regulatory efforts. The province needs a Coastal Zone Management Act to secure the future of the BC coast.

It is clear that the province must not abdicate coastal protection to other levels of government. Because the province has not yet legislated a strategy and overall plan for our coast:
•The federal National Energy Board’s hearings on the Northern Gateway
Project – the most important coastal management issue to face BC in
decades – will be decided by a three person panel, none of whom are
British Columbians. Unfortunately, BC failed to plan beforehand about oil
ports and other infrastructure decisions;
•  When industrial interests objected to funding arrangements, Ottawa’s
process for developing a north coast ocean management plan faltered.
That process is now likely to ignore major issues such as oil terminals.
Although the province and First Nations are now working to create Coastal
Management Area Plans, they are doing so without a clear statutory
mandate;
• It took the Cohen Commission to remind us that the future of salmon
rests as much upon actions of BC as on Canada. Salmon are affected by
stormwater, riparian development and numerous activities under provincial
jurisdiction. Yet there has not been a co-ordinated federal/provincial
strategy to protect salmon and our coast; and
• Most coastal resources are common property with ill-defined access rights.
This has caused overuse, neglect and degradation of essential ecosystems.
This problem has not been addressed.
Coastal Jurisdiction and Ownership
Management of coastal and marine resources is an area of complex, shared
jurisdiction between all orders of government, including First Nations and
local governments. For example, Ottawa has jurisdiction over fisheries
regulation and navigation. Local governments have zoning and other powers
over local shorelines and some coastal waters.
Meanwhile, the province has broad regulatory jurisdiction over numerous
activities in the coastal zone. In addition, it has jurisdiction and ownership
over the foreshore seaward of the high tide mark and all coastal or “inland”
waters within the “jaws of the land,” including the seabed. The seabed of
the Strait of Juan de Fuca, the Strait of Georgia, Johnstone Strait and Queen
Charlotte Strait are the property of British Columbia.
As a consequence, the coastal ecosystem is regulated by a plethora of
agencies from numerous governments. This thwarts effective planning
and management – especially because of the absence of effective legislative
mechanisms to coordinate the actions of multiple agencies.
Thus, it is not surprising that management of the coastal zone has been
more problematic than terrestrial resource management. The province
needs to address this. It needs to create a legislative framework to assert

jurisdiction and ownership of coastal resources – and to coordinate with other

governments

page 79:
“Management of coastal and marine resources is an area of complex, shared jurisdiction between all orders of government, including First Nations and local governments…”
 
Models of Coastal Management Legislation
There are successful models in other jurisdictions around the world. For
example, the US Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 empowered US
coastal states to develop some of the most progressive coastal management in
the world. Under the Act, state level coastal management programs provide
for:
•Protection of wetlands, floodplains, estuaries, beaches, dunes, barrier
islands, and fish and wildlife habitats;
•Management of coastal development to minimize the loss of life and property;
•Initiatives to improve coastal water quality;
•Siting of coastal-dependent uses and restriction of inappropriate development on the coast;
•Public access to the coasts for recreation;
•Re development of deteriorating urban waterfronts and ports, and
preservation of historic and cultural features;
•Coordination and simplification of coastal management decision making;
•Opportunities for public and local government participation; and
•Improved coordination between coastal management agencies.
[/blockquote]
In Canada, provinces such as Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador
have developed Coastal Management Strategies that have highlighted the need
for improved governance arrangements and may lead to specific provincial
legislation. The Law Faculty at Dalhousie University is currently reviewing
integrated coastal zone management law to develop options for Coastal Zone
Management model legislation.
Potential Elements of Coastal Management Legislation for BC
Following the models in the Canadian Oceans Act and the US Coastal Zone Management Act, a coastal management act for BC could include some or all of the following provisions:
• A preamble to reaffirm BC’s commitment to the conservation and sustainable management of estuarine, coastal and marine resources;
page 80
• Powers to enter into agreements and to delegate and accept powers from
other orders of government;
• Development of a Coastal Management Strategy;
• A legislative basis for coastal and marine spatial planning, including
regional management plans for estuarine, coastal and marine ecosystems;
• Establishment of a comprehensive network of marine protection areas within provincial waters that link with other networks of marine protection areas;
• Establishment of a voluntary local government coastal management program to protect and restore coastal ecosystems and private and public property. That has been the basis of shoreline restoration programs in US;
• Coastal and marine emergency planning and preparedness;
• Climate change adaptation strategies for issues such as e xtreme weather events, storm surges and sea level rise;
• Strategic assessment of marine transportation corridors, including decision-making processes for coastal infrastructure and port facilities;
•Programs for the revitalization of coastal communities; and
•Provisions to allow for collaboration with other levels of government and
First Nations.
A Coastal Zone Management Act would signal BC’s intent to take coastal
management seriously and fully exercise its jurisdiction and ownership. This
is preferable to leaving the future of the coast to the National Energy Board,
foreign governments like China, or to disorganization and neglect.
————————————————————————————————
Jamie Alley is former Director of the BC Oceans and Marine Fisheries Branch.
He currently teaches Integrated Coastal Zone Management at Universities in Canada and Iceland, and is Vice President (Pacific) for the Coastal Zone Canada Association.
Calvin Sandborn is the Legal Director of Environmental Law Centre.
———————————————————————————————–
For more information, see:

5.7 The Need for Protected Areas

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For too long, the government of Canada has bowed to the pressures of special interest groups and has avoided committing areas for no-take reserves on the Pacific Coast. In researching this topic I was surprized to see that several Marine Protected Areas have been created in Eastern Canada in the past year, but none in BC.

The reference on the RAMSAR convention (http://www.ramsar.org/key_brochure_2004_e.htm) provides a valuable source of information about the conservation and wise use of all wetlands. The estuaries and mudflats of the Pacific Coast are exactly the kind of ecosystem that this international convention targets. After defining the wetlands the following is stated as their idea of “Wise Use” .

  • And wise use?
    Wise use is defined as “sustainable utilization for the benefit of mankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem” .
    Sustainable utilization is understood as “human use of a wetland so that it may yield the greatest continuous benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations”.
    “Wise use” therefore has conservation of wetlands, as well as their management and restoration, at its heart.
  • The process for nominating a site in Canada can be found here in Tools for implementing the COnvention on Wetlands. http://www.wetkit.net/modules/2/sub_category.php?parent_cat_id=209&cat_id=229
  • Why are there no RAMSAR sites in theOceanic Regions of Canada. See this map..(http://www.aquatic.uoguelph.ca/wetlands/chramsar.htm ? A good idea for a take away action item.

from: Marine Fisheries Systems:

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.287.aspx.pdf

18.6.3 Effectiveness of Marine Protected Areas Marine protected areas with no-take reserves at their core can reestablish the natural structures that have enabled earlier fisheries to maintain themselves. (See also Chapter 4.) MPAs are not a recent concept. Historically, many fisheries were sustained be- cause a portion of the target population was not accessible. Most targeted fisheries were offshore or in areas adjacent to lands with low human populations and therefore subject to relatively low threat. However, modern fishing technology for mapping the sea- bed and for finding and preserving fish (artificial ice and blast freezing) expanded the reach of fishing fleets. A number of recent studies have demonstrated that MPAs can help in managing fisheries (Roberts et al. 2002). Most of these studies have covered spatially small areas and primarily in tropical shelf systems, although emerging studies from temperate areas, such as New Zealand and Chile, have also demonstrated MPA effectiveness. However, other studies have found that MPAs have not delivered the expected benefits of protecting species and their habitats (Hilborn et al. 2004; Edgar and Barrett 1999; Willis et al. 2003). In many cases failure was due to either not including MPAs as part of a broader coastal management system or a lack of man- agement effectiveness, funding, or enforcement. In the Gulf of Mexico, for example, the establishment of MPAs merely shifted fishing effort to other areas and increased the vulnerability of other stocks and endangered species (Coleman et al. 2004). Knowledge on the size and location of MPAs that can act as effective buffers against the impacts of fishing requires further research.It has been widely and repeatedly demonstrated that marine protected areas, particularly no-take marine reserves, are essential to maintain and restore biodiversity in coastal and marine areas (COMPASS and NCEAS 2001). Their wide-scale adoption is inhibited by the perception that biodiversity is unimportant relative to fishers’ access to exploitable resources. Therefore, the propo- nents of marine reserves have been saddled with the additional task of demonstrating that setting up no-take reserves will increase fisheries yields in the surrounding areas, as well as determining the appropriate size and siting of marine reserves that are needed to at least sufficiently offset the loss of fishing grounds. This requirement, combined with initiatives by recreational fishers as- serting rights to fish, has effectively blocked the creation of marine reserves in many parts of the world. Thus while the cumulative area of marine protected areas is now about 1% of the world’s oceans, only about one tenth of that—0.1% of the world’s oceans—is effectively a no-take area. This gives an air of unreality to suggestions that 20% and an opti- mum of 30 –50% of the world’s ocean should be protected from fishing to prevent the loss of some species now threatened with extinction and to maintain and rebuild some currently depleted commercial stocks (National Research Council 2001; Roberts et al. 2002; Airame et al. 2003; Agardy et al. 2003). Even the more modest CBD target of 10% MPA coverage by 2012 will be hard to reach. One approach to resolving this dilemma is to take an adaptive management approach so that the use of MPAs within a suite of fisheries management options can be assessed and modified as new information emerges and lessons learned are shared (Hilborn et al. 2004). This avoids unrealistic expectations on the improved performance of MPAs. Any approach to the use of MPAs in man- aging marine ecosystems would also benefit enormously from including performance monitoring and enforcement programs to address some of the management problems that have traditionally hindered effectiveness (Coleman et al. 2004). If properly located and within a context of controlled fishing capacity, no-take marine reserves enhance conventional fisheries management outcomes. They may, in some cases, reduce catches in the short term, but they should contribute significantly to im- proving fishers’ livelihoods as well as biodiversity over the mid to long term. Marine reserves generally perform this way in inshore shelf systems (such as reefs); many case studies, as shown in Saba Marine Park (Netherlands Antilles), Leigh Marine Reserve (New Zealand), and Sumilon Island Reserve (Philippines), are described in detail in Roberts and Hawkins (2000) to support this. How- ever, understanding of the effectiveness of marine reserves in managing fisheries in deeper oceanic areas is more limited. Further, the protection and monitoring of these deep-sea areas and other undamaged areas may, in line with the precautionary princi- ple, avoid the need for mitigation or restoration of the systems later, when costs are likely to be higher (and in some cases restoration may not be viable). Already, the demand for fish resources has pushed fishing fleets into international waters, and as other resources become scarcer in national waters (such as gas, oil, minerals, and carbon sinks), conflicts over the best use of these common resources and spaces will increase. Hence the growing call for ocean zoning, including the creation of no-take zones that would reestablish the reserves that were once in place due to vessels lacking the tech- nology to gain access to deeper, offshore areas, which in the past has protected exploited species.

2. DRAFT PLAN CALLS FOR ONE THIRD OF GREAT BARRIER REEF MARINE PARK TO BE NO-TAKE, MPA NEWS  Vol. 4, No. 11  June 2003

http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/MPA42.htm

3. Marine Protected Areas of the United States http://mpa.gov/

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are valuable tools for conserving the nation’s natural and cultural marine resources as part of an ecosystem approach to management. The United States has many types of MPAs for many purposes, including conservation of natural heritage, cultural heritage and sustainable production. Learn more about the national effort to build an effective national system of marine protected areas.

4 Australian MPAs http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mpa/index.html

5.WWF: Our Solutions: Marine Protected Areas http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/marine/our_solutions/protected_areas/index.cfm

Only 0.6% of the world’s oceans are protected, and the vast majority of existing marine parks and reserves suffer from little or no effective management. This is despite the fact that MPAs not only help safeguard biodiversity, they can also benefit fisheries and people.he benefits offered by MPAs include:
• Maintaining biodiversity and providing refuges for species
• Protecting important habitats from damage by destructive fishing practices and other human activities and allowing damaged areas to recover
• Providing areas where fish are able to spawn and grow to their adult size
• Increasing fish catches (both size and quantity) in surrounding fishing grounds
• Building resilience to protect against damaging external impacts, such as climate change
• Helping to maintain local cultures, economies, and livelihoods which are intricately linked to the marine environment
• Serving as benchmarks for undisturbed, natural ecosystems, that can be used to measure the effects of human activities in other areas, and thereby help to improve resource management

6. The Science of Marine Reserves

http://www.piscoweb.org/outreach/pubs/reserves

This site has a good set of videos.

These resources provide the latest scientific information about reserves in an understandable and accessible format. They are designed to be used by natural resource managers, government officials, scientists, and the interested public. To view the video by segment or a PDF version of the U.S. booklet, international booklet, or 2002 booklet, please click on the links below.

7.CPAWS About Marine Protected Areas
http://www.cpawsbc.org/marine/mpas/index.php

Benefits of Marine Reserves:

>Conservation of commercial resources
> Protection of critical and unique habitats
> Conservation of endangered or threatened species
> Scientific research and monitoring
> Enhancement of recreation and tourism opportunities
> Socioeconomic benefits for coastal communities
> Evidence that MPAs work

8. MPA News

http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/

5.8 The Ecological Footprint

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CRD Coastal Process

Image

This booklet was written in the 1970’s based on the report done by Dr. Wolf Bauer.

Click on the icon of each page of the gallery to view.

 

8.1 The Southern Vancouver Island Ecosystems Map

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The idea of a Google map is something that could be worked on by students as part of
their take-away assignment, or it could be produced by individuals who can highlight the major marine ecosystems and special features of those features along our coasts.

Below is a sample.  Any of the locations, and images can be linked to other websites.

(http://maps.google.com/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&hl=en&msa=0&msid=118280970847561172095.000440909b33bf52a6c54&t=h&z=9&om=1)

View
Larger Map

Gulf Islands Marine Park:

http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/bc/gulf/carte-map-fl_e.asp
See this example of Race Rocks Topography map:
http://maps.google.com/maps/ms?f=q&ie=UTF8&hl=en&msa=0&msid=116976515220086504185.00043fbaab8763a63fe54&t=h&z=18&om=1

9.0
Take-Aways

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